Event Sponsorship as a Value Creating Strategy for Brands

Event sponsorship as a value creating strategy for brands Dimitra Papadimitriou University of Patras, Patra, Greece Artemisia Apostolopoulou Robert Morris University, Moon Township, Pennsylvania, USA, and Theofanis Dounis University of Patras, Patras, Greece Abstract Purpose – The present research involves corporations that served as Grand National Sponsors of the Athens 2004 Olympic Games and aims to explore whether a strategic approach was employed in the acquisition and management of their Olympic sponsorship.Design/methodology/approach – A multiple case study analysis was employed, for which data were collected through semi-structured interviews. The study sample included seven of the ten Grand National Sponsors that signed agreements with ATHOC, the Organizing Committee of the 2004 Athens Olympic Games. Data analysis was organized around ? ve themes inspired by the existing literature. Findings – With the exception of two ? ms, the majority of the Grand Nati onal Sponsors reported no clear or measurable objectives and limited consideration to strategic or brand-related initiatives in their decisions to invest in the national Olympic sponsorship program. However, they did report plans to invest resources to leverage their rights, even though in most cases no speci? c evaluation processes had been designed. Research limitations/implications – Given that the Olympic Games are organized every four years in a new location, the ? ndings of this research may not ? d direct application to other markets and organizing committees that implement their own sponsorship programs. Nevertheless, this research did show relatively poor recognition of the role of sponsorship in creating value and building the corporate brand. Corporations considering becoming involved in sport sponsorship and also event organizers are encouraged to adopt a more strategic approach in the sponsorship solicitation and management process. Originality/value – Exi sting literature has discussed the role of sport sponsorship in brand management and the communication mix, and has highlighted the bene? s for ? rms that establish long-term ties with the Olympic Games. The present research adds to that line of work by highlighting if and how a strategic and brand building approach was adopted in the context of national-level Olympic partnerships. Keywords Sponsorship, Olympic Games, Brand management, Corporate strategy Paper type Research paper An executive summary for managers and executive readers can be found at the end of this article. Introduction The meaning of sponsorship as an integral element of the marketing mix has been conceptualised by Sandler and Shani (1993) with the following de? ition: â€Å"[Sponsorship is] the provision of resources (money, people, or equipment) by an organization directly to an event or activity in exchange for a direct association to the event or activity† (p. 39). Corporate spending on sport sponsorshi p in many European countries and in North America has increased dramatically (Lachowetz et al. , 2003). Global spending on sponsorship was estimated to reach $US28 billion in 2004 (from $US25. 9 billion in 2003) of which, according to the The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at www. meraldinsight. com/1061-0421. htm Journal of Product & Brand Management 17/4 (2008) 212– 222 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited [ISSN 1061-0421] [DOI 10. 1108/10610420810887563] International Events Group, 69 per cent relates to sporting events (International Events Group, n. d. ). There is plenty of evidence that sport sponsorship, including Olympic sponsorship, can be very effective in achieving a number of objectives, not the least of which is competitive advantage related to brand image and reputation (Amis et al. 1997; Copeland et al. , 1996; Meenaghan, 1998). The sport marketing literature provides some discussion on the value of sport sponsorship in also deli vering other bene? ts, such as increased awareness levels, sales and greater market share, and opportunities to develop employee and client (i. e. hospitality) relations (e. g. Abratt et al. , 1987; Apostolopoulou and Papadimitriou, 2004; Irwin and Asimakopoulos, 1992; Lough et al. , 2000; Ludwig and Karabetsos, 1999; Scott and Suchard, 1992). The technological developments related to porting, events along with the growing interest of the media for such activities, account to some extent for the steady increase of sport-related sponsorship investments (Meenaghan, 1998; Shilbury et al. , 2003). Meanwhile, the decreasing corporate trust in the ef? ciency of traditional media advertising channels may also explain why corporate investments in sport follow a growing trend (Meenaghan, 1998). Despite the pervasive appeal of the sport sector, however, companies have plenty of other event options at a local, national and international level from which to choose; thus greater emphasis on retu rn of 212Event sponsorship as a value creating strategy for brands Dimitra Papadimitriou, Artemisia Apostolopoulou and Theofanis Dounis Journal of Product & Brand Management Volume 17  · Number 4  · 2008  · 212 –222 investment will prevail their sponsorship decisions (Copeland et al. , 1996). Also, as the corporate demand for accountability in marketing expenditure increases, so does the need for a deeper understanding of the unique elements of event sponsorships as a strategic resource and a tool of marketing (Meenaghan, 1998; Thwaites et al. , 1998). Given the potential bene? ts involved in sponsorship, and in order to maximize ? ancial and other returns, corporations need to be strategic not only in their choice of properties (sport or other) with which to form partnerships but also in the allocation of resources to those agreements. Businesses must consider strategic priorities that suit their needs and systematically exploit the opportunities within their markets, and engage in partnerships that are aligned with those priorities. Furthermore, within those partnerships they need to link corporate objectives to particular strategic initiatives, a process that could turn sponsorship to a value-creating strategy capable of creating a distinctive advantage.Surprisingly, research is scarce on corporate sponsorship and its importance as a strategic resource and a brand management tool. As Meenaghan (1998) stresses, â€Å"The sponsorship literature has traditionally viewed sponsorship as an activity largely similar to advertising and generally, though not always, spoken of in terms of short- rather than long-term horizons† (p. 25). Indeed, most existing studies are descriptive, and focus on objectives and general motivation for making those kinds of investments (e. g. Berrett and Slack, 1999; Cornwell and Maignan, 1998; Doherty and Murray, 2007).Amis (2003) has also outlined the dearth of research on how intangible resources are identi? ed and managed in relation to image and reputation through sport sponsorship. This is also re? ected in the industry, as many companies invest immense resources but still ignore the capacity of sport sponsorship for ensuring longer-term bene? ts (Amis et al. , 1999). Accordingly, the present study attempts to explore the adoption (or not) of a strategic approach to the sponsorship process on the part of large companies involved in Olympic sponsorship.This is a research avenue that has been largely unexplored in the existing literature. and ideals and on leveraging its key brand on a national and international level. The Olympic Partner (TOP) program, which represents the IOC’s sponsorship program, holds a key role in the IOC’s overall marketing efforts as it attracts the interest of many international corporations due to a number of factors, including the long-term (a required minimum of four years) linkage to a very attractive intellectual property, exclusive global marketi ng rights, and the principle of product/service-category exclusivity. The ? st TOP program (1985-1988) involved nine partners and generated $US95 million, a far cry from the more lucrative 2001-2004 program, which engaged 11 corporations contributing $US603 million. Global corporations like Visa, Coca-Cola, Kodak and Panasonic view this type of partnership as strategic, and this is manifested by the fact that since 1986 all of them have invested considerable resources to remain part of the program until at least the 2012 Olympic Games. The IOC has extended their particularly successful marketing concept to a lower stage by introducing Olympic sponsorships at the national level.Revenues from those sponsorships contribute to the ever-increasing cost of hosting the event. The Organizing Committees of the Olympic Games (OCOGs) manage this program, which involves an array of sponsors, suppliers and providers from the host country (provided they are approved by the IOC). The 2000 Olympics attracted the interest of 93 such national partners who contributed $US492 million to the Organizing Committee of the Sydney Games (SOCOG), while the 2004 Olympic Games held in Athens generated e570 million through their national Olympic sponsorship program (Jeanrenaud, 2006).Present research The present study focuses on the national companies that signed on as Grand National Sponsors of the 2004 Athens Olympic Games and explores the role of these partnerships in sponsors’ brand management efforts, as perceived by company executives, as well as the degree to which these sponsors’ approach to their Olympic sponsorship was strategic. Furthermore, sponsors’ plans to integrate the sponsorship in corporate strategy and to exploit rights received by the Organizing Committee are also discussed. Given the increased pressure of corporations to maximize ef? iency in the use of their resources and to avoid opportunity cost, there is much interest in identifying whether a strategic approach was adopted in these companies’ Olympic involvement. The practices of these sponsors could provide valuable insight not only to other ? rms considering investment in sport sponsorship, but also to event organizing committees aiming to secure corporate support. The remainder of the paper includes a review of relevant literature, followed by a summary of the methodology and the ? ndings of the study.The paper concludes with a discussion of the theoretical contributions of the study and also practical recommendations for brand management and marketing executives as well as sport property representatives. Corporate sponsorship and Olympic Games The Olympic Games hold a few distinctive characteristics that make the event a particularly desirable property for a wide range of sponsors, but also for conducting research. First of all, it is a unique and highly prestigious event with a strong ability to reach a global audience through television networks.Secondly, th e marketing program and policies of the International Olympic Committee (IOC), the governing body of the Olympic Movement and the Olympics, actively preserve exclusivity for the limited number of international and national sponsorships and favor long-term partnerships. The IOC has worked extensively to raise awareness about how corporate contributions enhance the Olympic Movement and invests resources to achieve sponsor recognition. Thirdly, Olympic sponsorships are linked to attractive hospitality packages, which corporations value highly for networking, roduct display, and employee incentive purposes. Continuing a pattern which began in the late 1980s, sponsorship investments in the Olympic Games have increased exponentially, accounting for 34 per cent of the IOC’s $US4 billion Olympic marketing revenue for the 2001-2004 Olympic quadrennium (International Olympic Committee, n. d. ). This is the end result of the IOC’s strategic plan, which since 1985 has focused syst ematically on enhancing the Olympic image 213 Literature reviewThe review of literature is structured around three themes: 1 sponsorship and corporate strategy; 2 the integration of sponsorship within corporate marketing efforts; and 3 sponsorship and brand management. Event sponsorship as a value creating strategy for brands Dimitra Papadimitriou, Artemisia Apostolopoulou and Theofanis Dounis Journal of Product & Brand Management Volume 17  · Number 4  · 2008  · 212 –222 Sponsorship and corporate strategy Understanding what companies do or do not do to remain competitive in a constantly changing environment is at the heart of strategic thinking.Practice has shown that sport sponsorship, because of the bene? ts associated with those agreements, is a frequent strategic choice of many multinational corporations. Of the most indicative examples are Coca-Cola, Kodak and Visa International, three companies with long-standing relationships with the Olympic Games. These partic ular ? rms have integrated those agreements well into their long-term marketing strategies and are continuously promoting their involvement in order to gain competitive advantage (Farrell and Frame, 1997).However, such costly agreements cannot be treated in an ad hoc manner. Successful corporations are well aware that sponsorship deals should be approached as a resource, with the capability to lead to distinctive competence if effectively combined with other organizational resources (Amis et al. , 1997, 1999). Sport sponsorship, if viewed as a strategic resource, can support brand management objectives by enhancing brand image and reputation and by assisting the company to gain competitive advantage in targeted marketplaces (Amis, 2003).This, however, implies that corporations are prepared to engage in long-term commitments and to actively exploit those agreements, or otherwise face the disappointment of low return on their investment. Though limited, research evidence has shown tha t many companies engage in sport sponsorship with limited planning and integration (Farrelly et al. , 1997; Polonsky et al. , 1995). A few companies make those investments with con? ned understanding of the range of bene? ts involved and how those bene? s can be realized. They even lack the growing knowledge of the nature of the particular communication means and this is depicted on their objectives and the poor rationale for involvement. The empirical results of Farrelly et al. (1997) with a sample of North American and Australian companies engaged in sport sponsorship showed that more time is spent into negotiating deals than in integration and planning. Moreover, their research showed that a few North American ? ms approached sponsorship management as a strategic tool, whereas the majority of Australian businesses concentrated more on the communication opportunities of sponsorship (Farrelly et al. , 1997). Similarly, Amis et al. (1999) have provided evidence that companies often engage in sponsorship without integrating it in other marketing initiatives. The consequence involves delivering an unclear and inconsistent image to the customer. Any company considering entering into a sponsorship agreement should ? rst assess the potential bene? s and the probability of gaining a competitive position in the marketplace and then make a decision of whether or not to invest in the sponsorship. Building on the work of Hamel and Prahalad (1994), Amis et al. (1999) argue that sport sponsorship can become a potential source of competitive advantage if it meets three criteria: 1 it allows for a signi? cant increase in the perceived customer value of the service or product; 2 it permits for differentiating the brand from the competitors; and 3 it provides space for exploiting the deal through new services and products. 14 The employment of sport as a strategic tool for developing a position of competitive advantage is well described by Amis (2003) in reference to the case study of Guinness. That particular company has used sport extensively and consistently to build a unifying brand message on a global level. This was achieved by ? rst engaging in a global survey to identify a â€Å"key brand bene? t† (â€Å"Guinness brings out your inner strength†) that would unify its global brand and also ensure differentiation from other popular beer brands (Amis, 2003, p. 200).Secondly, the company used sport and sport sponsorship as a central element of its brand positioning strategy, creating advertisements featuring athletes and driving on-trade promotions and sales during world sporting events (Amis, 2003). The critical element of Olympic sponsorship is that it offers sponsors the opportunity to make use of unique business opportunities by providing concrete rights and speci? c bene? ts associated with the strongest sporting brand in the world (i. e. the Olympic Games), depending on the sponsorship category.Accordingly, and given the competiti ve nature of the growing Olympic sponsorship industry, other sport and non-sport sponsorship options, and the signi? cant resource investment required to get into a sponsorship agreement, strategic thinking becomes critical. Following the example of multinational corporations, one would expect that sponsors involved in Olympic sponsorships on the national level should also engage ? rst and foremost in fundamental strategic thinking related to company brand management efforts and overall corporate strategy, and consider how a potential sponsorship agreement would enhance corporate strategy and objectives.This question is the point of exploration of the present study. Integrating sponsorship into organizational marketing In her discussion on sponsorship-linked marketing development, Cornwell (1995) proposes a model of sponsorship development. That model involves six steps, each linked to the next, including: 1 analysis of the situation; 2 determination of objectives; 3 development of sponsorship-related strategy; 4 creation of sponsorship link; 5 sponsorship implementation; and 6 sponsorship evaluation.In another research effort to standardize the process of selecting a sport sponsorship program and utilizing it as a viable marketing tool, Arthur et al. (1998) proposed a multistep process that involved many of the points discussed earlier by Cornwell. The authors emphasized the necessity of a careful consideration of all options available to an organization in order to achieve company objectives, as well as the need to incorporate the sponsorship within the organization, manage, activate, and evaluate it (Arthur et al. , 1998).Therefore, it should be stressed that sport sponsorship can be an invaluable tool as long as it is fully integrated into a ? rm’s marketing and communication efforts. This involves ? rst of all placement of the corporate sponsorship activities into the marketing departments, clear and appropriate objectives and planning, and full in tegration into the communication mix. Otherwise, sponsorship activities, including those linked to the Olympic Games can be turned into costly mistakes with no substantial return on investment.Event sponsorship as a value creating strategy for brands Dimitra Papadimitriou, Artemisia Apostolopoulou and Theofanis Dounis Journal of Product & Brand Management Volume 17  · Number 4  · 2008  · 212 –222 Sponsorship and brand management Wong and Merrilees (2005) stress that, in pursuing competitive advantage in the marketplace, the brand should be in the heart of corporate strategy. In other words, managers should be able to combine corporate, marketing and promotional plans in a brand-based strategy, which can offer their company a sustainable edge over their competitors and lead to high levels of brand equity.Brand equity is one of the most fundamental signi? ers of a powerful brand because it represents the end result of strong brand loyalty, high name awareness, positive br and image, favorable brand associations, and the perception of superior quality (Aaker, 1991). As companies strive to build powerful brands with high value in the marketplace, sport sponsorship can serve as a tool for supporting brand management objectives (Amis, 2003; Sandler and Shani, 1993).Establishing and exploiting a partnership with a sport property can assist a company to strengthen some or all of the elements of brand equity and consequently increase the overall value of its brand (Roy and Cornwell, 2003). A few authors have discussed sport sponsorship’s role in enhancing brand image and reputation, increasing brand awareness and familiarity, and altering public perceptions (e. g. Amis et al. , 1997; Cornwell et al. , 2001; Gwinner and Eaton, 1999; Irwin and Asimakopoulos, 1992). Bene? s have also been reported in terms of brand personality and brand differentiation (Amis et al. , 1999; Cornwell et al. , 2001). The brand-related bene? ts outlined above can be deliver ed with an even greater effectiveness via Olympic sponsorship agreements. Brown (2000) discussed how AMP (an insurance and investment company) and Visa, both companies in the services sector, used their Olympic sponsorship of the 2000 Olympic Games for brand development and brand differentiation initiatives. Crimmins and Horn (1996) have also reported that Visa has bene? ed from measurable changed perceptions of its brand over MasterCard as a result of the Olympic sponsorship. Furthermore, Stipp (1998) showed that managers are well aware of how sponsor image is signi? cantly affected by the special qualities of Olympic advertising, the favorable public attitudes toward Olympic sponsorship, and the strength of the association between the sponsor and the Olympics. This is attributed to the fact that the general public expresses high respect for the Olympic Games and attaches special value to Olympic sponsorship (Stipp, 1998).Even though there is evidence that sport sponsorship, and pa rticularly Olympic sponsorship, is a distinctive resource capable of ful? lling brand management objectives, it should be stated that its effectiveness depends on active management (Amis, 2003; Cornwell et al. , 2001), appropriate and adequate leveraging (Chalip and Leyns, 2002), and longterm agreements which allow time for strong associations to be developed between events and brands (Keller, 1993). Companies should not make the mistake of mismanaging sport sponsorship agreements.They should approach these agreements as a distinctive resource, which needs to be integrated within other company activities in order to produce sustainable competitive advantage (Amis et al. , 1999). Sample On the national level, ATHOC, the Organizing Committee of the 2004 Athens Olympic Games, instituted a sponsorship program, the National Sponsoring Programme, which offered three levels of involvement: 1 Grand Sponsor; 2 Of? cial Supporter; and 3 Of? cial Provider.This sponsorship program contributed a total of e570 million to the Organizing Committee’s budget (Jeanrenaud, 2006). The present research effort focused on the highest of the three levels, the Grand Sponsors. It was assumed that, given the size of the companies and the extent of their investment, there were higher chances that a strategic and/or brand building orientation would have been adopted at that level. Therefore, the sample for this study was drawn from the population of the Grand National Olympic Sponsors of ATHOC. The ten ompanies that served as Grand sponsors were 1 Alpha Bank (private bank); 2 Athenian Brewery (beer producer); 3 DELTA (dairy product company, co-sponsor with FAGE); 4 FAGE (dairy product company, co-sponsor with DELTA); 5 Hellenic Broadcasting Corporation (ERT, national broadcasting company); 6 Hellenic Post (ELTA, national postal services provider); 7 Hellenic Telecommunications Organization (OTE, national telecommunications company); 8 Hyundai Hellas (automotive company); 9 Olympic A irlines (national airline company); and 10 Public Power Corporation SA (DEI, national electrical power provider).Data collection The design of this research involved a multiple case study approach. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews conducted with the Marketing Directors or other company executives responsible for coordinating the Olympic sponsorship activities of their particular organization. The particular research design was deemed appropriate for the study objectives as it facilitated the exploratory nature of this research. It also allowed for motivating the interviewees to explore and discuss aspects of their sponsorship-related thinking and enabled in-depth probing into unexpected issues during the discussion.Interviews took place between January and May 2004, and the duration of each interview was approximately one hour. Research efforts resulted in a total of seven of the possible ten interviews. Consequently, all results are based on information from t he seven sponsors interviewed. An interview guide was developed to incorporate the following key themes: . the reason(s) for which the ? rms entered into the Olympic sponsorship agreement; . the way(s) in which the Olympic sponsorship was integrated into the ? rms’ overall corporate strategy, their marketing strategy, and their brand management efforts; . he amount of resources deployed into the sponsorship; . the initiatives introduced to leverage the sponsorship; and . companies’ plans to evaluate the effectiveness of their Olympic sponsorship. 215 Methodology The present study follows a multiple case study approach to investigate the extent to which Grand Sponsors of the 2004 Olympic Games were involved in strategic planning and systematic leveraging activities related to their Olympic sponsorship agreements. Event sponsorship as a value creating strategy for brands Dimitra Papadimitriou, Artemisia Apostolopoulou and Theofanis DounisJournal of Product & Brand Manage ment Volume 17  · Number 4  · 2008  · 212 –222 Data analysis In an effort to explore whether a strategic approach was adopted (or not) by the Grand Sponsors of the 2004 Olympics in the acquisition and management of their sponsorship, the present study focused on four indicators, namely: 1 sponsors’ stated goals and/or objectives; 2 resources allocated to the acquisition and activation of the sponsorship; 3 sponsorship leveraging initiatives; and 4 sponsorship evaluation plans The study attempted to assess the degree to which each of these areas was considered in the sponsorship process.In addition, the perceptions of company-sponsor representatives in terms of the incorporation of their sponsorship in the overall corporate strategy and brand management efforts were used as a ? fth indicator. These ? ve elements were chosen to frame the analysis because they have been proposed in past research (Arthur et al. , 1998; Cornwell, 1995) as indicators of a strategic app roach to sport sponsorship, and thus were deemed appropriate for the objectives of the present research.All data received through the interviews were therefore contentanalyzed based on those ? ve parameters. Results A discussion on each of the ? ve parameters as they relate to the seven companies-sponsors in the sample is presented in the following section. Sponsorship as part of corporate strategy and brand management efforts In order to explore whether a strategic approach was adopted in the acquisition of the Olympic sponsorship at the national level, companies were asked to discuss how iOlympic sponsorship ? tted in their overall (i. . corporate) brand management strategy. From the responses received to that question alone, it appeared that two of the seven companies in the sample clearly saw this sponsorship as an opportunity to support major shifts in the structure and orientation of their companies. More speci? cally, Alpha Bank, a private bank that had gone through a merger in recent years, saw its Olympic sponsorship as a way to support the union of the two banks that merged and also as a cause behind which to unite the two distinct cultures and staffs.Its involvement with the Olympics was seen as a platform to promote the new, post-merger company and to solidify its new name and identity in the minds of consumers. ELTA, the main postal services provider in Greece, which had been a sponsor of the ? rst modern Olympic Games held in Athens in 1896, was also going through major changes at the time leading up to the Olympic Games as the company was preparing for an initial public offering (IPO). Their main interest was to use their Olympic sponsorship to strengthen and promote their corporate image.According to a company representative, â€Å"we want to promote a modern image of effectiveness and quality; a humane image† (personal communication, February 2, 2004). Their investment in this sponsorship intended to support the company’s brand r epositioning efforts that focused on promoting a more positive, a more customer- and service-oriented image. In addition to the role of the sponsorship in shaping a new image 216 for the company, it served as a means to celebrate a milestone in company history, i. e. the 175th anniversary of the establishment of the organization. When asked the same question of how their Olympic sponsorship ? ted with their brand management efforts, the remaining ? ve companies in the sample did not discuss any strategic initiatives that were supposed to be supported by the sponsorship. Instead, they provided reasons for which they decided to become a sponsor. Athenian Brewery, a beer producer, and DELTA, one of the dairy product co-sponsors, mentioned that their decision to become a sponsor was driven primarily by the fact that the Olympic Games was the largest and most important athletic event to occur in the modern history of the country, while the other three cited being a logical choice for the pro? e and size of their company (FAGE, dairy product co-sponsor); obliging to a matter of honor (Olympic Airlines, airline); and supporting their company’s social responsibility strategy (DEI, power provider) as their rationale for entering into those agreements. Even though it seems that, from their responses to that question alone, these ? ve sponsors did not consider any strategic or brand-related initiatives in their decisions to become involved in the program, there was some relevant information that ould be deciphered from their commentary on their sponsorship objectives, which indicates that some consideration of corporate strategy or branding was present. That information is discussed in the following section. Stated goals and/or objectives All of the companies in the sample seemed to have, to a greater or lesser extent, some stated goals for this sponsorship. However, with the exception of two cases, none of them were speci? c or measurable. In general, stated goal s/objectives fell into two categories: 1 pro? -oriented (i. e. sales); or 2 brand-oriented. Table I outlines companies’ goals and/or objectives in terms of their Olympic sponsorship agreements and groups them based on their orientation. In terms of the pro? t-oriented goals/objectives, the majority of the sponsors in the sample seemed to agree that increasing sales for one or all of their products/services was one of their goals. Olympic Airlines, the national airline company, had speci? c objectives in terms of the amount of additional traf? it would generate during the summer months and was also expecting long-term repeat business. Alpha Bank, the private bank, was more speci? c in terms of the group it was targeting; it was looking to attract a younger demographic for its services. As was noted, â€Å"we are aiming to attract a younger audience [as] the pro? le of our clients is middle age† (personal communication, January 20, 2004). Interestingly, there was also th e case of one sponsor (ELTA, postal services provider) that did not declare any speci? pro? t-oriented goals, but rather expressed a desire to at least make up the money they invested in acquiring the sponsorship. As stated by a company representative, one of their goals was â€Å"to cover the minimum guaranteed amount spent to acquire the sponsorship† (personal communication, February 2, 2004). The same company representative indicated that they did not view their Olympic sponsorship as a means that would produce any signi? cant commercial bene? ts and that the ? ancial returns were expected to be marginal. In addition to the pro? t-oriented goals, there were also other stated goals/objectives related to some aspects of brand Table I Goals/objectives of Grand National Olympic sponsors Brand-oriented goals/objectives Brand awareness, recognition Brand loyalty Integrate staff members of two banks Integrate two company cultures Brand associations Brand image, positioning Organi zational culture, employees (internal branding)Other goals/ objectives Grand National Olympic Pro? t-oriented goals/ sponsors objectives Alpha Bank Event sponsorship as a value creating strategy for brands Dimitra Papadimitriou, Artemisia Apostolopoulou and Theofanis Dounis Strengthen employee relations through leveraging initiatives Support the efforts of ATHOC – altruism 217 Receive moral bene? ts Increase market share Establish the new bank name in the minds of consumers Gain new customers Attract younger consumers Generate pro? of e50 million Athenian Increase sales (target group: Enhance brand recognition Create a legacy Make Heineken a yearBrewery 18-34) of Heineken after the Games round beer Community involvement DELTA Increase sales Create brand recognition, Community Strengthen company image awareness involvement Project interest in community matters and the country FAGE Generate sales from visitors Promote products abroad Turn foreign visitors into upon return to th eir Create brand awareness consumers of their countries among visitors (foreign products consumers) Hellenic Post [Avoid losses – make up the Create a positive image, (ELTA) money spent on sponsorship] customer- and serviceoriented Support company repositioning efforts Increase prestige as a new Olympic Airlines Increase traf? c by 150,000 Generate exposure and buzz post-Games company travelers (e50 million) Generate repeat travel in the future Create image of trust and Public Power Create credibility association Corporation, SA with the event Create prestige (DEI) Strengthen social pro? le of company Unite employees behind common effort Journal of Product & Brand Management Volume 17  · Number 4  · 2008  · 212 –222 Serve noble cause of sponsorship Coordinate communications under one strategy Take advantage of sponsorship rightsEvent sponsorship as a value creating strategy for brands Dimitra Papadimitriou, Artemisia Apostolopoulou and Theofanis Dounis Journal of Product & Brand Management Volume 17  · Number 4  · 2008  · 212 –222 management. More speci? cally, the two areas that seemed to be more prevalent in sponsors’ priorities were brand awareness and recognition and brand image. Five of the seven sponsors in the sample stated that they were interested in raising awareness/recognition levels for their brands or a particular product under their brand. For Athenian Brewery, the beer producer, the goal was â€Å"to enhance brand recognition for Heineken [one of the products of that company] [. . . ] to promote Heineken and make it a year-round beer† (personal communication, March 4, 2004).Alpha Bank, the private bank, was more interested in raising people’s awareness of the new name of the bank, while FAGE, one of the dairy product co-sponsors, was focused on making foreign consumers who were visiting Greece for the Games familiar with their products in hope that they would continue consumption upon return to their native countries. The second aspect of brand building that seemed to be important amongst at least four of the seven Grand National Olympic sponsors in the sample was brand image. Through association with an event as grandiose and unique as the Olympic Games, sponsors felt they could create a more positive image for their company.This goal was particularly important for ELTA, the postal services provider that was hoping that the sponsorship would support its repositioning efforts. As their representative stated, â€Å"our company is at the stage of planning or promoting a change in its nature and orientation [. . . ] we are now shifting from the era of the citizen to the era of the customer, and that is important† (personal communication, February 2, 2004). Using the sponsorship to create an image of trust and credibility was one of the goals of DEI, the national power provider, while projecting their company’s interest in the community and the country and cr eating prestige as a new company were goals expressed by DELTA (dairy product co-sponsor) and Olympic Airlines (airline), respectively.Another area related to branding, other than the two mentioned above, which also became evident from the data, is the use of sponsorship for purposes of branding within the organization (i. e. internal branding). Two of the companies in the sample, Alpha Bank (private bank) and DEI (power provider), indicated that they saw their Olympic sponsorship as a means to promote employee relations. According to the representative of one of the sponsors (DEI), â€Å"[one of the goals of our company for the Olympic sponsorship is] to unite employees around a vision and a common effort† (personal communication, May 6, 2004). A third company, DELTA (dairy product producer), made reference to that goal not directly, but through the discussion of their sponsorship activation initiatives.In addition to the two main groups of goals, there were also some other goals/objectives expressed by Grand National Olympic sponsors. Those re? ected mainly altruistic motives and moral bene? ts sought through their involvement in the particular sponsorship program. Allocated resources Another indication of whether a sponsorship is seen as an investment and a brand building tool is the amount of resources invested in the process. There were two types of resources examined in this study, i. e. human and material resources. Furthermore, material resources were distinguished between in-cash versus in-kind, and those invested in the acquisition versus the activation of the sponsorship. 218In terms of human resources allocated to their Olympic sponsorship, all companies in the sample formed some type of committee that was responsible for managing all sponsorshiprelated activities. The size of those committees ranged from two to 15 members and, in most cases, membership included employees from a number of departments within the organization. Furthermore, two of the companies in the sample, Alpha Bank and Athenian Brewery, discussed their intention to involve their employees in the process by initiating employee Olympic volunteer programs. Not all sponsors in the sample were willing to disclose the ? nancial investments they made to acquire their Olympic sponsorships. Of the seven companies in the sample, six provided some information in terms of the ? nancial resources allocated to becoming a Grand Olympic sponsor.From the information provided through the interviews, it was concluded that Athenian Brewery and DELTA invested in cash only, DEI invested in kind only, while Alpha Bank, ELTA and Olympic Airlines invested both in cash and in kind. In general, there seemed to be a commitment toward the sponsorship, which became more apparent from the stated intentions of sponsors to allocate ? nancial resources in sponsorship activation initiatives. Even though all seven companies in the sample discussed some sponsorship activation plans, onl y four of the sponsors (Alpha Bank, Athenian Brewery, FAGE, Olympic Airlines) mentioned that they were planning to invest ? ancial resources on that aspect, with two of those (Alpha Bank and Olympic Airlines) disclosing the speci? c amounts. Some more information on sponsorship activation is provided in the section below. Sponsorship activation In addition to the resources allocated to sponsorship activation, information was collected on speci? c leveraging initiatives. Although there was some variation in terms of the means chosen by each company to activate their sponsorship, most initiatives involved the use of the Olympic logo and symbols as well as the Olympic mascots on sponsors’ products, employees, distribution vehicles, and at points of sale. The most common sponsorship activation initiatives involved Olympic-themed sales promotions (e. g. ontests), themed packaging, new products (e. g. Olympic-themed credit card), and collectible pins. Furthermore, three of the spon sors in the sample (Alpha Bank, ELTA and Olympic Airlines) mentioned the existence of a hospitality program for their clients or partners. In terms of the use of communication media to activate their Olympic sponsorship, the most popular choices appeared to be advertising through mass electronic (e. g. television) and print (e. g. newspaper) media, posters and billboards, displays at sponsors’ distribution outlets or specially created kiosks, and internal company communication media or publications (e. g. employee newsletter).Surprisingly, the use of the internet and the companies’ websites (provided one existed) did not appear to be prevalent, with only three sponsors (Athenian Brewery, Alpha Bank and FAGE) mentioning its use in leveraging their sponsorship agreement, while three other companies (DELTA, ELTA and Olympic Airlines) indicated that promotion through the internet would be limited. Sponsorship evaluation Of all ? ve indicators used to determine the role of these sponsorship agreements in companies’ strategy and brand management efforts, this measure is probably the one for Event sponsorship as a value creating strategy for brands Dimitra Papadimitriou, Artemisia Apostolopoulou and Theofanis Dounis Journal of Product & Brand Management Volume 17  · Number 4  · 2008  · 212 –222 which more general and more vague responses were received.With the exception of three companies that either did not provide any information on this area (Alpha Bank) or provided very general information (Olympic Airlines and DEI), the remaining sponsors in the sample indicated at least some plans to measure sales, company awareness/recognition levels, and perceived image amongst consumers, or to conduct cost-bene? t analyses after the Games. Discussion In light of the ? ndings received from a representative group of the Grand National Sponsors of the 2004 Athens Olympic Games, some general observations and practical recommendations are offered for marketing and brand management executives interested in investing in sport sponsorship. Firstly, even though the marketing literature has repeatedly cautioned corporate executives about the need to be strategic with their decisions to invest in sponsorship and also in the selection of an appropriate property that could further corporate objectives (e. g. Farrelly et al. , 1997; Meenaghan, 1998), the ? dings of this study indicate that only a small number of the national sponsors of the Athens Olympic Games truly saw this sponsorship as a tool to further corporate strategy. For a number of other ? rms becoming a sponsor was explained by generally stated objectives of assisting the Organizing Committee’s efforts to put on a good event of the greatest national importance. However, even those companies that did not speak about corporate strategy and brand management made it clear throughout their interviews that solidifying an association with the Olympic Games could affect their brand image and positioning in a positive manner. The use of words such as â€Å"legacy†, â€Å"honor†, â€Å"prestige† and â€Å"image† indicates that these companies were well aware of how an of? ial relationship with an event as unique as the Olympic Games and as important for the history of the country (i. e. Greece) would help to build strong brand associations. This con? rms past research suggesting that sport sponsorship can be used as a brand-building tool through the creation of positive and favorable brand associations (e. g. Amis, 2003; Roy and Cornwell, 2003). Secondly, the companies in the sample highlighted the key strengths of their national Olympic sponsorships by stating the goals and objectives attached to those agreements, even though they were not, in most cases, speci? c or measurable as it has been recommended through past literature (e. g. Arthur et al. , 1998).Interestingly, many of the goals and objectives stated were brand- related. It was evident through the interviews that companies recognized the opportunity to sharpen their brand image and increase levels of brand awareness, but also saw the chance to do that in a favorable light by taking advantage of the positive feelings and emotions people had toward the Olympic Games. Being seen as one of the contributors to an event as important to the country and its citizens – even though not directly related to pro? toriented objectives – if achieved, could have led to positive outcomes via strengthening the company’s image and emotional connection with current and potential consumers.Past research also has connected the existence of positive brand associations to favorable consequences for brands (e. g. Amis, 2003; Gladden et al. , 1998). Thirdly, it appeared from the data that all the companies created teams to manage their sponsorships and, in most 219 cases, those teams involved employees from a number of departments. The involveme nt of various departments in the sponsorship management process could indicate efforts of sponsors to integrate their Olympic sponsorship throughout their organizations. Furthermore, for those companies that decided to involve their employees via Olympic volunteer programs or to incorporate employee bene? s and special corporate hospitality programs, it seems that they also saw this sponsorship as a tool to build employee relations and strengthen their brand internally. Fourthly, the willingness of companies to allocate resources not only in becoming sponsors but also in leveraging their sponsorship relationships indicates an even greater commitment in using this sponsorship as a brand building tool and receiving full bene? ts from their involvement – even though that was not clear from responses related to the ? rst indicator. It also implies that companies saw value in the intellectual property of the Olympic Games and in the rights received through their agreements with th e Organizing Committee. Although most of the managers interviewed failed to report with speci? ity the resources committed in sponsorship activation, this ? nding is in agreement with previous research that proposes spending money to leverage the associated bene? ts of a sponsorship (e. g. the $2-for-$1 additional spending found by Farrelly et al. , 1997). The leveraging initiatives described throughout the interviews were clearly efforts to capitalize on the positive feelings and enthusiasm that were widespread throughout the country. Using a variety of promotional and communications initiatives to take advantage of product/service category exclusivity rights (even for the two dairy product producers that signed on as co-sponsors) and of the of? cial af? iation with the Olympic Games could provide a competitive advantage to those corporations and differentiate them from their competition. Lastly, the lack of data on sponsorship evaluation plans might imply that assessment of the ef fectiveness of process and of the ful? llment of goals might not be an area to which companies devoted much energy, at least in the early stages of their sponsorship relationship. This ? nding is consistent with the existing literature, which indicates that many companies spend signi? cant resources on sponsorship agreements but fail to establish formal sponsorship evaluation systems or procedures (Miyazaki and Morgan, 2001).Furthermore, the fact that most objectives stated throughout the interviews were rather general and not speci? c could make any effort to evaluate the effectiveness of these sponsorship agreements even harder. Consistent with past literature (e. g. Cornwell, 1995; Meenaghan, 1998), in this case it is also strongly recommended that plans to measure whether corporate objectives were achieved should be an integral part of the sponsorship design and implementation, and not merely an afterthought. Olympic sponsorships, especially at the national level, are somewhat u nique in that they are typically once-ina-lifetime opportunities, with sponsorship renewal being less of an issue. Even so, easuring return on investment could prove valuable in guiding a company through future decisions to invest in sport or other sponsorship opportunities. Managerial implications and conclusions Given the increased pressure on corporations to maximize ef? ciency in operations and maximize return on all company investments, sport sponsorship has naturally fallen under Event sponsorship as a value creating strategy for brands Dimitra Papadimitriou, Artemisia Apostolopoulou and Theofanis Dounis Journal of Product & Brand Management Volume 17  · Number 4  · 2008  · 212 –222 scrutiny in terms of its potential to further corporate goals and help strengthen the brand.The main contribution of this research is showing that there are still large corporations – such as the Grand National sponsors of the Athens 2004 Olympic Games – that enter expens ive sponsorship agreements with only moderate consideration to the strategic and brand-building elements of sponsorship. As this study showed, not all cases prove that speci? c brandbuilding initiatives were put in place from the start of those relationships. The ? ndings discussed above hold managerial implications for both sponsorship executives and (sport) event properties. In addition to an overall strategy involving corporate brand management, it is important for sponsors to fully understand what speci? advantages are delivered through their sponsorships and how customers might view those companies’ sponsorship efforts in relation to other media tools. As Farrelly et al. (1997) have suggested, ? rms need to ? rst â€Å"research the role of sponsorship in the strategic plan, communication mix, and its place in the organizational hierarchy† (p. 178). Using a manager-based view of the Grand National Olympic sponsorships, the ? ndings are quite clear in showing that t his type of thinking had not yet (i. e. at the time of the interviews) been adequately established in these agreements. The majority of the 2004 Olympics Grand sponsors had dif? culties approaching their partnerships as a valuable esource able to create competitive advantage in the marketplace. Nevertheless, the marketing department of ATHOC, the Organizing Committee of the Athens 2004 Olympic Games also holds part of the responsibility for the lack of strategic thinking in the investments of some Grand sponsors. Organizing Committees in general hinge on the success of these agreements in order to generate income and positive evaluations on corporate business developments. In addition to the promotion of the unique image of the Games and the rights of the Olympic sponsorship program, it is in the overall interest of the event property to integrate real strategic thinking in the sponsorship program process.This strategic thinking can be oriented, for example, by encouraging and/or as sisting candidate sponsors to explore their strategic link between the Olympic Games’ audience and their ? rms’ target market and overall brand-related objectives. If the property (in this case OCOG) works proactively to promote the unique business links associated to their audience, the brand bene? ts, as well as the other opportunities for meaningful interactions with costumers, sponsors will be more willing to allocate resources on entering the agreements and spending for their full activation. This could result in real strategic and brand management thinking on the part of the selected national Olympic sponsors, as well.Given that the Olympic partnerships involve a four-year period of sponsorship privileges, a strategic approach is particularly critical in order to facilitate a sustained long-term successful partnership with mutual bene? ts. In closing, the results of the study imply that the need for adequate planning and strategic integration of sponsorship withi n other corporate marketing and branding efforts cannot be overstated. Especially with a property as unique as the Olympic Games, the need to be strategic in all decisions related to the sponsorship, to create new and leverage existing unique brand associations, and to implement speci? c measures of success in every step of the process is imperative for sponsors if unique bene? ts are to be realized. 220 References Aaker, D. A. (1991), Managing Brand Equity, The Free Press, New York, NY.Abratt, R. , Clayton, B. C. and Pitt, L. F. (1987), â€Å"Corporate objectives in sports sponsorship†, International Journal of Advertising, Vol. 6, pp. 299-311. Amis, J. (2003), â€Å"‘Good things come to those who wait’: the strategic management of image and reputation of Guinness†, European Sport Management Quarterly, Vol. 3 No. 3, pp. 189-214. Amis, J. , Pant, N. and Slack, T. (1997), â€Å"Achieving a sustainable competitive advantage: a resource-based view of sport s ponsorship†, Journal of Sport Management, Vol. 11, pp. 80-96. Amis, J. , Slack, T. and Berrett, T. (1999), â€Å"Sport sponsorship as distinctive competence†, European Journal of Marketing, Vol. Nos 3/4, pp. 250-73. Apostolopoulou, A. and Papadimitriou, D. (2004), â€Å"‘Welcome home’: motivations and objectives of the 2004 Grand National Olympic sponsors†, Sport Marketing Quarterly, Vol. 13 No. 4, pp. 180-92. Arthur, D. , Scott, D. , Woods, T. and Booker, R. (1998), â€Å"Sport sponsorship should . . . . A process model for the effective implementation and management of sport sponsorship programmes†, Sport Marketing Quarterly, Vol. 7 No. 4, pp. 49-60. Berrett, T. and Slack, T. (1999), â€Å"An analysis of the in? uence of competitive and institutional pressures on corporate sponsorship decisions†, Journal of Sport Management, Vol. 8, pp. 114-38. Brown, G. 2000), â€Å"Emerging issues in Olympic sponsorship: implications for host citie s†, Sport Management Review, Vol. 3, pp. 71-92. Chalip, L. and Leyns, A. (2002), â€Å"Local business leveraging of a sport event: managing an event for economic bene? t†, Journal of Sport Management, Vol. 16, pp. 132-58. Copeland, R. , McCarville, R. and Frisby, W. (1996), â€Å"Understanding the sport sponsorship process from a corporate perspective†, Journal of Sport Management, Vol. 10, pp. 32-48. Cornwell, T. B. (1995), â€Å"Sponsorship-linked marketing development†, Sport Marketing Quarterly, Vol. 4 No. 4, pp. 13-24. Cornwell, T. B. and Maignan, I. (1998), â€Å"An international review of sponsorship research†, Sponsorship Business Review, Vol. 2, pp. 36-42. Cornwell, T. B. Roy, D. P. and Steinard, E. A. II (2001), â€Å"Exploring managers’ perceptions of the impact of sponsorship on brand equity†, Journal of Advertising, Vol. 30 No. 2, pp. 41-51. Crimmins, J. and Horn, M. (1996), â€Å"Sponsorship: from management ego trip to marketing success†, Journal of Advertising Research, Vol. 36, July/August, pp. 11-21. Doherty, A. and Murray, M. (2007), â€Å"The strategic sponsorship process in a non-pro? t sport organization†, Sport Marketing Quarterly, Vol. 16 No. 1, pp. 49-59. Farrell, K. A. and Frame, W. S. (1997), â€Å"The value of Olympic sponsorships: who is capturing the Gold? †, Journal of Market Focused Management, Vol. 2, pp. 71-82. Farrelly, J. F. , Quester, P. G. and Burton, R. (1997), â€Å"Integrating sports sponsorship into the corporate Event sponsorship as a value creating strategy for brands Dimitra Papadimitriou, Artemisia Apostolopoulou and Theofanis Dounis Journal of Product & Brand Management Volume 17  · Number 4  · 2008  · 212 –222 marketing function: an international comparative study†, International Marketing Review, Vol. 14 No. 3, pp. 170-82. Gladden, J. M. , Milne, G. R. and Sutton, W. A. (1998), â€Å"A conceptual framework for assessing bra nd equity in Division I college athletics†, Journal of Sport Management, Vol. 12, pp. 1-19. Gwinner, K. P. and Eaton, J. 1999), â€Å"Building brand image through event sponsorship: the role of image transfer†, Journal of Advertising, Vol. XXVIII No. 4, pp. 47-57. Hamel, G. and Prahalad, C. K. (1994), Competing for the Future, Harvard Business School Press, Boston, MA. International Events Group (n. d. ), â€Å"Sponsorship spending worldwide†, Sponsorship Report, available at: www. sponsorship. com/learn/worldwidespending. asp (accessed July 2, 2007). International Olympic Committee (n. d. ), â€Å"Revenue generation 2001-2004†, Organisation Facts and Figures, available at: www. olympic. org/uk/organisation/facts/ revenue/index_uk. asp (accessed July 1, 2007). Irwin, R. L. and Asimakopoulos, M. K. 1992), â€Å"An approach to the evaluation and selection of sport sponsorship proposals†, Sport Marketing Quarterly, Vol. 1 No. 2, pp. 43-51. Jeanrenaud, C. (2006), â€Å"Sponsorship†, in Andreff, W. and Szymanski, S. (Eds), The Handbook on the Economics of Sport, Edward Elgar, Cheltenham, pp. 49-58. Keller, K. L. (1993), â€Å"Conceptualizing, measuring, and managing customer-based brand equity†, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 57 No. 1, pp. 1-22. Lachowetz, T. , McDonald, M. , Sutton, W. A. and Hedrick, D. G. (2003), â€Å"Corporate sales activities and the retention of sponsors in the National Basketball Association (NBA)†, Sport Marketing Quarterly, Vol. 12 No. 1, pp. 18-26. Lough, N. L. , Irwin, R. L. and Short, G. 2000), â€Å"Corporate sponsorship motives among North American companies: a contemporary analysis†, International Journal of Sport Management, Vol. 1, pp. 283-95. Ludwig, S. and Karabetsos, J. D. (1999), â€Å"Objectives and evaluation processes utilized by sponsors of the 1996 Olympic Games†, Sport Marketing Quarterly, Vol. 8 No. 1, pp. 11-19. Meenaghan, T. (1998), â€Å"Commercial spo nsorship – the development of understanding†, International Journal of Sports Marketing & Sponsorship, Vol. 1 No. 1, pp. 19-31. Miyazaki, A. D. and Morgan, A. G. (2001), â€Å"Assessing market value of event sponsoring: corporate Olympic sponsorships†, Journal of Advertising Research, Vol. 41, January, pp. 9-15. Polonsky, M. , Sandler, D. , Casey, M. , Murphy, S. , Portelli, K. and Van Velzen, Y. 1995), â€Å"Small business and sport sponsorship: the Australian experience†, Journal of Promotion Management, Vol. 3 Nos 1/2, pp. 121-40. Roy, D. P. and Cornwell, T. B. (2003), â€Å"Brand equity’s in? uence on responses to event sponsorships†, Journal of Product & Brand Management, Vol. 12 No. 6, pp. 377-93. Sandler, D. M. and Shani, D. (1993), â€Å"Sponsorship and the Olympic Games: the consumer perspective†, Sport Marketing Quarterly, Vol. 11 No. 3, pp. 38-43. Scott, D. R. and Suchard, H. T. (1992), â€Å"Motivations for Australian expe nditure on sponsorship – an analysis†, International Journal of Advertising, Vol. 11, pp. 325-32. Shilbury, D. , Quick, S. and Westerbeek, H. (2003), Strategic Sport Marketing, 2nd ed. , Allen & Unwin, St Leonards. 221 Stipp, H. 1998), â€Å"The impact of Olympic sponsorship on corporate image†, International Journal of Advertising, Vol. 17 No. 1, pp. 75-87. Thwaites, D. , Aguilar-Manjarrez, R. and Kidd, C. (1998), â€Å"Sports sponsorship development in leading Canadian companies: issues and trends†, International Journal of Advertising, Vol. 17, pp. 29-49. Wong, H. Y. and Merrilees, B. (2005), â€Å"A brand orientation typology for SMEs: a case research approach†, Journal of Product & Brand Management, Vol. 14 No. 3, pp. 155-62. About the authors Dimitra Papadimitriou is a Lecturer in the Department of Business Management at the University of Patras, Greece. She teaches in the area of sport management and marketing.Her research interests include o rganizational theory, sport sponsorship and sport tourism, and her work has appeared in the European Sport Management Quarterly, Sport Marketing Quarterly, Sport Management Review, Managing Leisure, and the International Journal of Sports Marketing & Sponsorship. She is also the author of the book Management of Sport Enterprises and Organizations, published in 2005 by Kleidarithmos Publications. In addition, Dr Papadimitriou is an elected board member of the European Association for Sport Management and serves on the Editorial Board of the European Sport Management Quarterly journal. Dimitra Papadimitriou is the corresponding author and can be contacted at: [email  protected] gr Artemisia Apostolopoulou is an Assistant Professor of Sport Management in the School of Business at Robert Morris University, USA. She teaches sport management and marketing at the undergraduate and graduate level.Her primary area of research involves brand management and brand extension strategies impleme nted by sport organizations. Her secondary research interests include sponsorship and endorsement issues, as well as entertainment aspects of sport consumption. She has presented work at numerous national and international conferences, co-authored book chapters, and published research in Sport Marketing Quarterly and the International Journal of Sports Marketing & Sponsorship. Theofanis Dounis is a PhD candidate in the Department of Business Management at the University of Patras, Greece. He conducts research in the area of strategic management in the professional football industry.Executive summary and implications for managers and executives This summary has been provided to allow managers and executives a rapid appreciation of the content of the article. Those with a particular interest in the topic covered may then read the article in toto to take advantage of the more comprehensive description of the research undertaken and its results to get the full bene? t of the material pr esent. This sporting life Corporate sponsorship of sport is a big business and it is growing. In 2003, for example, spend on sponsorship was calculated at $US25. 9 billion. A year later in 2004, it had risen to $28 billion. In anyone’s money, that’s a big business. Of this spend 69 percent goes to sporting events. Sport, it seems, is the ? rst among equals.Event sponsorship as a value creating strategy for brands Dimitra Papadimitriou, Artemisia Apostolopoulou and Theofanis Dounis Journal of Product & Brand Management Volume 17  · Number 4  · 2008  · 212 –222 Within this or any other context the Olympic Games has become a phenomenon of our times. The ancients surely could not have imagined what was to come. The late nineteenth century/early twentieth century revivalists would be, one would suppose, either amazed or aghast. Organizers picking up the baton after the Second World War, such as the modest London Games of 1948, would still have little inkling of what was to come. A global TV audience and, some might argue, a shift in values, have changed the game.For global companies the Olympics deliver a global audience and provide a more or less unique opportunity to reinforce brand values and build reputation. It is an opportunity not to be missed. It only comes around every four years. Athenian outcomes British Prime Minister Harold Macmillan, on being asked what represented the gr

Business Communications Final Exam Questions & Answers Essay

1. Briefly describe any one of the communication models discussed in the textbook and/or lecture Lasswell’s (1948) model describes communication as a one-way transmission of messages. The model shows the ‘who’ as the ‘source’, the ‘what’ as the message, the ‘how’ as the channel, the ‘whom’ as the destination and the ‘effect’ as the outcome. 2. Describe three of the of the tests you can use to enable ethical decision-making Are we rationalising: Identify if you are rationalising, that is justifying your reasons with excuses such as: Everybody is doing it It’s not illegal They did it to me If I don’t do it someone else will The golden rule: Treat others as you would want to be treated If you wouldn’t like a particular action or behaviour to happen to you, then don’t do it to others Publicity test: After making a decision, it would then be publicised for anyone to see or read about such as family, friends etc. If you are happy and confident in what you have done and do not feel any guilt then it is a good test to use, if not, then the decision was not ethical. 3. What is the role of ‘I’ statements in the communication process? Illustrate with an example I’ statements are a way of sharing emotions and letting others know how their behaviour is perceived and how it affects you. One of the most effective  ways to begin assertive statements is to say ‘I feel †¦ when †¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ For example, the message may be: ‘I feel annoyed when you don’t let me know you will be late.’ People can express their needs and wants with an ‘I’ message. It shows their personal involvement plus a willingness to share their feelings. It also lets them own their own reactions. 4. Identify and explain the three techniques of persuasion as outlined in the textbook Three techniques: Rhetorical mix Features-benefits mix Appeals to emotion Rhetorical mix: Persuasion involves careful framing of arguments and a mixture of the three types of rhetorical appeal. Good communicators have the ability to use and combine the three types of appeal appropriate to the audience, subject matter and context. logos, or the appeal to logic (price, variety, product information) pathos, or the appeal to the emotions (entertainment potential of the website, sensory appeal through audio/visuals, intuitiveness of navigation and the extent to which the website can be personalised for users) ethos, or appeal to credibility (privacy and security, corporate image and branding). Features–benefits mix The features–benefits mix is a technique of persuasion that incorporates a mixture of a product or service’s features and benefits into the message to show the audience the real benefits. The message must stress the benefits in order to focus on the receiver’s need and enable the receiver to see the relevance of the features and benefits to them. The message has two essential components: features of a product or service, and a clear and concise illustration of how to apply these features linkage of the features with the benefits to enable the receiver to understand ‘what’s in it for me’ Appeals to emotion Appeals to emotion are ideas targeted towards the emotions, needs or values that the reader or listener is likely to care about. Fair appeals to emotion generate emotions based on facts and related to the issue. In contrast, unfair appeals to emotion generate emotions based on unsubstantiated claims and aroused by biased words rather than solid evidence or by fallacies such as red herrings or by personal attacks unrelated to the issue. Appeals to emotion balanced with logic persuade fairly and ethically; however, appeals to emotion are often misused either intentionally or unintentionally. When used improperly, emotional appeals offer a simple unthinking reaction rather than a reasoned argument and manipulate through prejudice, fear, embarrassment or other feelings rather than convince credibly. Example 5. Define the concept of emotional intelligence. Discuss the role emotional intelligence plays in building relationships and improving performance at work. Define: the abilities to recognise and regulate emotions in ourselves and others. Discuss: Emotionally intelligent people are responsive to others and able to use their own personal and social competence to express their expectations and values. Researchers have concluded that success is related to more than general intelligence (IQ). Successful people are emotionally intelligent. They have the personal and social competence to develop positive personal, social and work relationships, and to interact easily. Emotional intelligence influences organisational effectiveness in a number of areas: employee recruitment and retention, development of talent, teamwork, employee commitment, morale and health, innovation, productivity, efficiency, sales, revenue, quality of service, customer loyalty, client or student outcomes. 6. Briefly explain the difference between macro-culture and micro-culture including examples for each The macro-culture comprises all the arts, beliefs and institutions (legal,  governmental, business, educational and social) that characterise an ethnic group, race or nation, while a narrower micro-culture exists within the macro-culture. The micro-culture includes the characteristic attitudes and behavior operating within a group, an organisation or a nation. Macroculture usually consists of the culture which influences the majority of the people. In United States, macroculture reflects to the traditions of Western Europe. An example of a micro-culture could be the aboriginal community within the larger Australian community. 7. Describe the characteristics of Hall’s context model of culture Hall’s context model demonstrates that communication and culture are not only about words. Not just text, but context. It explains how context can be measured and that there are two extremes – low and high High context: A culture in which the context of communicated messages is as important as the communicated message Low context: A culture in which the context of communicated messages is not as important as the communicated message itself 8. Define the terms ‘enculturation’ and acculturation’ and explain how they differ. Provide examples for each of the terms Enculturation is the socialisation process that we go through as we learn about and adapt to our society Examples: unconscious (as we absorb and imitate the daily habits, speech patterns and roles of our parents from infancy) or deliberate (as we are taught specific manners for greeting people, religious rites and rituals, and reading the Bible, Koran, Torah or other literature). Acculturation is the process of cultural adjustment and adaptation people experience as they move from one culture to another. Example: Adopting a culture’s values, symbols and behaviour. Moving to another country and adapting to their customs whilst maintaining your traditions from back home. Differ: Enculturation and Acculturation both involve adapting to society however acculturation is not an unconscious or deliberate process and mainly occurs when introduced to a new culture or environment. 9. What is cultural diversity? Why is it important for people to study diversity as they prepare to enter their career? Cultural diversity is the variety of human societies or cultures in a specific region, or in the world as a whole. It is important that people study diversity as they prepare to enter their career because people can then accommodate differences in the background, perspectives and family responsibilities of other employees, and gather knowledge from the diversity of perspectives to generate new ideas and ways of doing things. It is also important, as they will already have acknowledged that the workplace is diverse and also respect other colleagues of their customs and cultural beliefs. This in turn prevents any form of discrimination, and judgement. 10. Hofstede’s five†dimensional model of culture has substantial potential for aiding our understanding of individual cultures and for comparing cultures. What are the five dimensions in the model? Briefly explain any one of the dimensions. Five Dimensions Power Distance Uncertainty Avoidance Individualism vs. Collectivism Masculinity vs. Femininity Long-term vs. Short-Term Orientation Uncertainty Avoidance Defines the extent to which members of a culture feel nervous about, or are threatened by, situations they perceive as ambiguous, unclear or unstructured. People in high-uncertainty cultures: Are risk averse Maintain strict codes of behaviour Establish more formal rules Tend to be resistant to change. People in low-uncertainty cultures: Take more risks Require fewer structures Are more informal and relaxed Are willing to accept change.

Around The World In 80 Days

Types of literary work This lyrical novel is an adventure novel made up of adventurer English who crawled around the world. Inner weaving is historical facts such as the British Empire and global colonies, as well as historically precise places. Theme The theme of this wonderful novel is bold and permanent. At the time of betting, Fokker was sent to the world in impossible hours in 80 days. Throughout the work, Foccer's endless sustainability intertwines with his strict British gentle sensation, which surprises the reader. Celebrities in Bly have reached international standards and her mission is to travel the world in 80 days, as Phileas Fogg did in Jules Verne's 80 day world tour. Bly achieved her goal and in her exile experience her report became a book that traveled the world on the 72nd (1890). After that I entered a small university Indiana ordinary school in Indiana, Pennsylvania, and I learned to become a teacher there. However, immediately after starting the course, due to e conomic constraints Bly was forced to express hope for higher education. After graduating from school, she and her mother moved to the nearby Pittsburgh where they operated the dormitory together. A round-the-world trip for 80 days is a classic trip and an adventure novel. The premise of this novel is that the mission of Phillias Fogg of the hero is to travel around the world in 80 days to reward a lot of money. This task is becoming more difficult, and it seems that Fock is playing continuously. The biggest problem is that spies were mistaken for bank robbery that dropped the speed of Fokker during the journey. My grandfather, John Tisler, never traveled as dramatically as Verne did, but he traveled quite a while traveling around the world. He works for FDA for most of his adult life and his work requires a lot of travel. During his trip his work was to show how to mark the cans that would be sold in the US correctly. A secular reason for the trip, it made it possible for him to tr avel around the world. For many years, he has traveled all over America, Mexico, Germany, France and Italy. Around The World In 80 Days Types of literary work This lyrical novel is an adventure novel made up of adventurer English who crawled around the world. Inner weaving is historical facts such as the British Empire and global colonies, as well as historically precise places. Theme The theme of this wonderful novel is bold and permanent. At the time of betting, Fokker was sent to the world in impossible hours in 80 days. Throughout the work, Foccer's endless sustainability intertwines with his strict British gentle sensation, which surprises the reader. Celebrities in Bly have reached international standards and her mission is to travel the world in 80 days, as Phileas Fogg did in Jules Verne's 80 day world tour. Bly achieved her goal and in her exile experience her report became a book that traveled the world on the 72nd (1890). After that I entered a small university Indiana ordinary school in Indiana, Pennsylvania, and I learned to become a teacher there. However, immediately after starting the course, due to e conomic constraints Bly was forced to express hope for higher education. After graduating from school, she and her mother moved to the nearby Pittsburgh where they operated the dormitory together. A round-the-world trip for 80 days is a classic trip and an adventure novel. The premise of this novel is that the mission of Phillias Fogg of the hero is to travel around the world in 80 days to reward a lot of money. This task is becoming more difficult, and it seems that Fock is playing continuously. The biggest problem is that spies were mistaken for bank robbery that dropped the speed of Fokker during the journey. My grandfather, John Tisler, never traveled as dramatically as Verne did, but he traveled quite a while traveling around the world. He works for FDA for most of his adult life and his work requires a lot of travel. During his trip his work was to show how to mark the cans that would be sold in the US correctly. A secular reason for the trip, it made it possible for him to tr avel around the world. For many years, he has traveled all over America, Mexico, Germany, France and Italy.

Midterm Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 2

Midterm - Assignment Example Risk Test: The risk involved is for both, the employer and the employee, if the financial health of the company booms then it wouldn’t affect the hourly rate of Wright, thus Wright would not be benefited under good condition. Similarly if the company is not doing well then even under such condition it would have to pay the same hourly rate it was giving before, thus making it risky for the company. Tools Test: the article doesn’t specify any information regarding the tools provided to Wright, but upon further examination it can be extracted that most likely Wright uses the equipment and tools of the company in his daily work. These can be, computer, stationery, and other supplies which are used in daily office work. Moreover, the company also provides him with the important data and reports for him to base his work upon. Durability and Exclusivity of Relationship Test: as mentioned earlier, Wright has been employed at Reactors Ltd. for two years during which he has been working on hourly rate and also has been offered the position of General Manager. Working at a central position, where he is responsible for monitoring the activities at the company, it has become hard for him to work for any other clients. Since, Wright has been working as an employee at Reactors Ltd. the taxes as well as the CCP should be canceled for the period of his tenure. Interest and fine(s) would be a possible outcome from the CRA as well. a) It is possible that Monique file a complaint based on the Human Rights act under which are the 14 grounds of prohibited discrimination. However, it is not possible for her to draft the complaint on direct discrimination, like physical appearance which is not a part of this act. But, if she succeeds in coming up with a strong argument regarding the permissibility of piercing in religious context then she can have the chance to prove her point. b) No, there is no contradiction of NB Human Rights act as reflected in the actions of the

Landlord and tenant in the uk Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

Landlord and tenant in the uk - Essay Example The paper starts by distinguishing empowerment from participation, and makes a number f comments relating to the recent literature on tenant participation in particular. It is argued that there is a need for a more rigorous examination f empowerment processes, and in the following section an attempt is made to devise a typology f such processes which is completely different from any typology f tenant participation processes. This typology is then applied in the following sector to important recent developments in Britain which have involved, or have been claimed to involve, the empowerment f residents. Specific means f empowerment which are considered include the provision f information, the passing f legislation, the commitment f resources, and the transfer f management functions. The final section f the paper then briefly discusses the implications f the arguments on empowerment for the development f communities and the changing role f housing management. As Harrison (1995,p. 22) points out, "empowerment clearly means more than ... participation", but it may be worth considering just how much more empowerment does involve. People may participate individually or collectively in an activity without thereby experiencing any increase in their control over their lives. This can happen if those who control that activity simply want to use the participation for their own ends. For example, they may want to make themselves hefter informed on a subject f which the participants have special knowledge, or they may merely want to go through the motions f participation without taking seriously the participants' contributions. They may want to promote an image f themselves as "listening to the people" but without any real commitment to the empowerment f those people. Participation without empowerment is therefore a confidence trick performed by the controllers f an activity on participants in that activity. To the extent to which the trick works, it must be disempowering rather than empowering. Those who take this cynical approach, however, should bear in mind the arguments f Foucault (1980), to the effect that simply entering into discussion about what can or cannot be done is itself an empowering process, so that those who initiate participation, even with disempowering intent, may find themselves forced or influenced to act in ways which they had not originally intended. Bearing in mind the above caveat, there is in fact a good deal f overlap between participation and empowerment. For example, mechanisms for consultation clearly involve the participation f those consulted, but the participants are also empowered to the extent to which attention is paid to their views and concerns. This argument is obviously stronger with regard to the forms f participation where participants can hold decision makers to account for what they do and where participants have some say in the decision making process itself. In these cases, the specificity f

Trade balance, Exchange rate policy, Growth rate of economy in Brazil Essay

Trade balance, Exchange rate policy, Growth rate of economy in Brazil - Essay Example For the production of the commodities Brazil mainly used Slave labors for the production of the commodities. Industrialization in Brazil took place in the year 1930 and onwards. The first steel plant was built in the country in 1940.During the 1950s to 1970s other important sectors of the economy such as fertilizers, automobile, petrochemical and steel expanded. It was in this time that the growth rate of Brazil was at the record high levels in the world. During 1970s the countries in Latin America along with Brazil was a favorite destination for absorbing the excess liquidity of banks in the United States, Japan etc. As investments started flowing in there was a rapid development of the infrastructure facilities. During this period the economy of Brazil grew at a rate of about 8.4% per annum. In was during this period that per capita income of the Brazilians raised 4 fold. Trade policies in Brazil have undergone several changes in the past decade. The trade policies during the 1930s and 1940s, was characterized by great depression. During this time Brazil followed protectionist policies which isolated the country from rest of the world. The country experienced trade growth during 1960s and 1970s and this led to the opening of the doors related to agrarian and tax reforms. Several banks participated in this period to the reforms. As cheap credit was available government and private sector participated in heavy borrowing and this led to the fact that economic growth was high and unstable. Then in the 1980s as the interest rates rose sharply the accumulated debt proved to be unstable for the country and this resulted in the country going into debt crisis. This resulted in the fact that the country had to suffer almost 15 years of low growth and hyper inflation. In the 19990s there was a beginning of privatization and liberalization. As Brazil had followed protectionist policies for about half a century, this resulted in the fact that the country’s share in

ENG Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 2

ENG - Essay Example Having come across certain definitions and details that account for how ‘doublespeak’ generally functions, it seems that such type of language has taken on the nature or role of leading expressions to ambiguity or to euphemistic, evasive, or obscure forms. The language, otherwise known as ‘gobbledygook’, is treated as such for the deliberate intention of confusing the way an individual understands an idea by tradition. One may find it amply necessary to ask ‘why would this be so when we have rules to follow in communication especially in the technical or grammatical aspect of constructing logical thought’? In my view, based on real experience, doublespeak is sometimes being applied on instances when a person needs to be subtle or mellow, say, in breaking an upsetting news. At another situation, it can be utilized in campaigns or propagandas by a political party or socio-cultural organization in attempting to persuade the public into becoming int erested in a belief or philosophy that represents its cause. The degree by which ‘doublespeak’ affects a person may be evaluated at random on the basis of perceptions developed upon encounter of each language form which could emerge to be a jargon, inflated language, as well as that which similarly occurs to manifest a sound of ambiguity or groundless generalizations. Since these forms operate with distinct characteristics, doublespeak may be perceived to cause a varying degree of impact depending upon which form is involved and the type of people and event destined to interpret the information being delivered by a doublespeak source. As such, while using jargon works for a closed group with particular set of knowledge or principle lingoes, promoting gobbledygook may otherwise serve the interest of individuals with rare tolerance and capacity to pick up any sense of the matter dealt with despite the utter meaninglessness and deceitfulness of a doublespeak. Moreover, â⠂¬Ëœdoublespeak’ has become common in use in our society at current times that it appears automatic for most people to comprehend words in their new context. This is quite evident in the frequent application of some phrases like ‘senior citizen’, ‘person of interest’, ‘detainee’, and ‘passed away’ in place of an ‘old person’, ‘suspect in crime’, ‘prison-of-war’, and ‘died’, respectively, among a long list of doublespeak items. Whether at home, at work, at school, or elsewhere, I have had more than several circumstances of hearing, overhearing, reading, and having ‘doublespeak’ spoken of by myself. One time I gave my classmate a ring to ask about a specific lesson I missed then he responded with â€Å"Hold on please, I’m in the ‘middle of something’† rather than saying he was too busy at the moment. While having our dinner, my mother t old us â€Å"I believe that guy is ‘crossing over to the other side’† in reference to one of our neighbors whose good behaviour was gradually turning wicked. On campus grounds at another occasion, I heard two members of the faculty discussing ‘capital punishment’ which likewise meant ‘death penalty’. Somewhere I realize that using doublespeak matters in a way that it tends to make an intellectual impression so that people who reserve rich and colourful vocabulary of doublespeak must be thought of as effective communicators or masters of idioms and are thus able to express themselves in any

Fossils (Earth Science Class) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Fossils (Earth Science Class) - Essay Example They are an important resource for identifying the types of species living during a particular era. Body fossils are the actual parts of the organisms and are rare to find as they can only be found in the places where the organisms actually lived. They provide very important information regarding the physical appearance of the organism but they are still ignorant to their lifestyle. Trace fossils include footprints, pathways and droppings. These offer an insight into the lifestyle of these organisms. The time durations in the study of fossils and rocks are huge; hence a geological time scale has been developed. The major subdivisions of the geological time scale are eons, eras, periods and epochs with eon indicating a span of hundreds of millions of years. Comparison between the features of different sedimentary rocks and the type of fossils present in it can be used to establish age relationships between different strata of Earth’s crust. This is known as correlation and is an important tool in the study of fossils and rocks (Lutgens, Tarbuck, &

MANAGING YOUTH WORK Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

MANAGING YOUTH WORK - Essay Example The importance of making a living is repeatedly told by the parents so that their children can understand that they have to earn sooner and later in their lives. Additionally the philosophy of work is worship is also quite prevalent in developed nations and therefore elders encourage the next generation towards living a productive life in the community. The above mentioned positive attitude is indeed helping strong economies in maintaining a higher level of living standards. When the majority of the individuals make their own living then the burden of the society divides that causes a notable improvement in the community. But in case of underdeveloped or developing country's skilled labor and highly educated people are rare and therefore the responsibility of economic welfare of four to ten people resides on the shoulders of one individual. The aforementioned condition is causing a significant hindrance in the process of fiscal development as more than seventy percent of the workforc e is unwilling to work at all. The lack of education is also considered as a leading cause of poor economic conditions in the third world (O’Higgins, 2003 pp 8). ... ished to foster certain types of professional behaviors in the youth while they are trained to implement creativity and newness in the upcoming corporate world. The professors and trainers also highlight the role of technology in the modern day business world. Youngsters are also guided to consider technological development as a friend whereas they are encouraged to embrace it when performing their responsibilities in the practical arena. The investments in youth developmental programs are ideal for those cultures where people are willing and committed towards sharing their knowledge with others. But in developing nations experienced professionals feel reluctant regarding knowledge sharing with others because they fear that their own skill set will become obsolete if they share it. Yet according to modern research if a person shares his or her knowledge with others then he or she might gather new information as well. The ability to share knowledge and its benefits are explained in So cial Exchange Theory that is identified as one of the fundamentals of modern management (Emerson, 1976 pp 347). The companies operating in developed economies play their role in supporting youth development with the help of offering internship programs so that they can train the next generation of corporate soldiers to say the least. Literature Review According to contemporary research on the topic of youth work, it is quite evident that the nations that use these kinds of programs as a source of development in youth end up with an excellent workforce for the future (Larson, 2000 pp 181). The nations that are deploying the concept of youth work include the names of America and England (Catalano, Berglund, Ryan, Lonczak, & Hawkins, 2004 pp 111) whereas in developing nations Malaysia and

The Killer Angels by Michael Shaara Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The Killer Angels by Michael Shaara - Essay Example It resulted in loss and injury of 51,000 men. The characters of the book include General Robert E. Lee (commander of the Confederate army), General James Longstreet (General Lee’s second in command); and Union Colonel Joshua L. Chamberlain (the participant of the fighting on Little Round Top, one of the most popular divisions of the Battle of Gettysburg). On June 29, 1863, Longstreet meets a spy, who tells him that the Union army is moving, which surprises him because he thinks that General Stuart is supposed to follow the Union army. He thinks it appropriate to catch the Union army from north. The Confederates move south-east in Gettysburg. Colonel Chamberlain finds out that there are a hundred new mutineers from the Second Maine, out of whom six join his Twentieth Maine after his speech. The Union army, under supervision of General Buford, arrives in Gettysburg to find out the Confederates already present there. Buford positions nearly 200 soldiers along the hills to confron t the Confederates, because he thinks it easier to fight from the top. George Pickett and many other Generals meet Longstreet in the Confederate camp. General Lee is irritated at the absence of General Stuart. On July 1, he meets Longstreet who tells that he wants to confront the Union army from south-east, to come between them and Washington D.C. Lee refuses. The Confederates attack the Union army at Gettysburg. Buford keeps back the Confederates with the help of General Reynolds, who gets killed. Lee arrives and finds the battle going on, and orders his Generals to attack the Union army from south. Chamberlain’s troops also move in the north of Gettysburg. The union army retreats to the hills and sets up cannons. Longstreet is perplexed at Lee’s decision, and is angry at General Ewell’s move of making the Union forces retreat in hills. The Union army blames Buford for the retreat. Chamberlain is still moving in the north of Gettysburg on July 2, where he meets an escaped slave. Lee approves of Ewell and Early’s plan to attack two flanks of the Union. He moves his forces toward the hill, where the Unions had already come down. Lee attacks, and the result is a scene of carnage from both sides. Chamberlain reaches the little Round Top. His troops run short of bullets. They scream and frighten the Confederates away, making the Unions possess the Little Round Top. Lee gets angry at Stuart when he arrives. Lee sets a new plan of attacking the middle flank of the Unions. He orders Chamberlain’s troops to take position, on July 3. Longstreet tries to convince Lee to leave the plan, but all in vain. He gives Pickett the charge of attack. The Confederates attack the Unions. Chamberlain is safe, though his troops are in the center. The attack is of less harm to the Unions, who attack back with cannons, causing the Confederates much loss. Confederates retreat, and the gory battle ends (Bailey). Shaara’s attempt at describing eve nts made this book the top best-seller (Wilson and Fischer 492). I loved reading the book, and appreciated the way the writer has conveyed the correct sequence of events. The way of writing is subtle yet imaginary, and I can feel myself present at the place of war while reading. The tone is expressive, and the style of writing, with which the chronological order of events has been presented, is lucid. While synopsis, I

Classic gangster Essay Example for Free

Classic gangster Essay The portrait of Tom Powers is described in details because this hero of the classic gangster movie occupies an honorary place in a gallery of movie gangsters. He is the type of a ‘tough guy’ in the American sense of this definition. The issue of his toughness is explored in the episode of Putty Nose’s murder, the episode with his girlfriend Kitty and a grapefruit (he smacks it into her face), the scene where Tom shoots the horse that threw and killed his boss, Sam Nails Nathan, in a riding accident. In the end of the film, when his world is ruined – â€Å"[H]is brother hates him, his mother cannot claim him, his best friend, sticking by him, has been murdered, his ‘love’ has proven unattainable† (Shadoian 2003, p. 57) – the hero turns into an avenger. Tom bursts into the headquarters of a rival gang and kills the most of its members revenging for his friend’s death and the takeover of his empire. The same actor, James Cagney, was paired with Humphrey Bogart to play the ‘tough guys’ Eddie Bartlett and George Hally in The Roaring Twenties, the next movie under analysis. In comparison to The Public Enemy, where the accent was put on the factual details of a gangster’s career, The Roaring Twenties commemorated the portrait of the gangster as â€Å"the stuff of legend more than fact† with the â€Å"qualities, partially mourned, [being] emblematic of a period put behind† (Shadoian 2003, p. 31). Raeburn (1988 p. 53) also admitted that â€Å"the gangster hero [was] becoming a poignant reminder of a morally ambiguous but ultimately heroic past† in the present movie. Raeburn (1988, p. 53) gave a very convincing description of the main character’s â€Å"heroic efforts in the 1920s to create a business empire and to acquire a genteel woman who will top off his business success, a la Gatsby†. That the empire crumbles in the 1929 crash and the woman marries the dull district attorney only increase Eddies poignance. His dreams of success were exactly those of generations of American achievers, and if bootlegging is the only avenue for achievement open to him and the woman is bound by her class prejudice to choose the insipid Lloyd over him, then the fault lies not so much in Eddie as in the meretriciousness of a culture which could only provide such impoverished materials to a man of Eddies extraordinary abilities. The film is interesting for its juxtaposition of different asocial characters: Cagney’s hero as â€Å"the dynamic lead† and Bogart’s character as â€Å"the dishonorable villain as social pathology† (Leitch 2002, p. 30): Unlike Cagney, whose appeal was direct, physical, and extroverted, Bogart, who could suggest depths of worldly disillusionment beneath a crooked shell, was the perfect choice to play gangsters designed to explore the ambiguities of nongangster culture: a stifling societys thirst for cathartic violence; the need to blame intractable social problems on outside agents or to project them onto a comfortably remote history; the recognition that the gangsters power, like the western gunslingers, was for better or worse a reminder of a simpler time long past. Unlike these two representatives of the American classic gangster movies – Public Enemy and The Roaring Twenties – The Long Good Friday [Great Britain] portrays the criminal who is anything else but the object of nostalgia. As Guy Richie, director of Lock, Stock Two Smoking Barrels (1998) said to Tom Charity in the interview for Time Out (12-19 August 1998), â€Å"[P]art of what’s good about The Long Good Friday, you really did buy that these guys were villains† (cited Chibnall and Murphy 1999, p. 1). Harold Shand is a modern British tough criminal with his preference of â€Å"blustering and beleaguered patriarchy† (Chibnall and Murphy 1999, p. 2). The outer circumstances challenge his ability to retain power and balance of responsibilities. Shand has nothing in common with Tom Powers (The Public Enemy) or Eddie Bartlett and George Hally (The Roaring Twenties) except for the collapse pattern of the criminal career and the general structure of the criminal system. Like the bootlegger empire in The Roaring Twenties, Shand’s ‘kingdom’ is defended by his relationships with the corrupt members of the law-abiding clan (the local councillor Harris and the police officer Parky). Shand refers to himself as to â€Å"a businessman with a sense of history† (Hill 1999, p. 163). This dubious remark sends the spectator to his background of the ganglord and his future desire to legalise the criminal business. However, political affairs and his colleagues’ treachery prevent Shand from making his great plans come true. As the action evolves, Harold’s enemies are destroyed with cool blooded violence but, annoyingly, â€Å"pour back like an army of ants† (cited Hill 1999, p. 163). The main hero fails to keep the balance of powers and, thus, follows his American counterparts on the path of disillusionment and collapse. However, the British movie depicted the gangster who was not the relict of the bygone epoch but was familiar for the public of the 1980s from both mass-media and everyday life.